Mandela served 27 years in prison, split between Robben Island, Pollsmoor Prison and Victor Verster Prison. [194][195], In 1989, Botha suffered a stroke; although he would retain the state presidency, he stepped down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by F. W. de Klerk. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang "Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika". It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to see realised. Mandela argued that there was a "third force" within the state intelligence services fuelling the "slaughter of the people" and openly blamed de Klerkâwhom he increasingly distrustedâfor the Sebokeng massacre. The Sanjiang Normal School, which was organized in 1902 and officially opened in 1904, was the largest and the latest designed after the implementation of the new education in the late Qing Dynasty. [163] He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards. [448] Boehmer described him as "a totem of the totemic values of our age: toleration and liberal democracy"[449] and "a universal symbol of social justice". As early as the Han Dynasty, Jiangdong private schools were relatively developed. [485] In the 1980s he was the subject of several songs, such as The Specials' "Free Nelson Mandela", Hugh Masekela's "Bring Him Back Home (Nelson Mandela)", and Johnny Clegg's "Asimbonanga (Mandela)", which helped to bring awareness of his imprisonment to an international audience. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected to be regional president in October. [299] He took a soft diplomatic approach to removing Sani Abacha's military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha's regime increased human rights violations. [64] In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the ANC's Transvaal Province branch, serving under regional president C. S. Ramohanoe. The charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in Kliptown; 3,000 delegates attended the event, which was forcibly closed down by police. [361] The media was awash with tributes and reminiscences,[362] while images of tributes to Mandela proliferated across social media. That day, Miss Mdingane told me that my new name was Nelson. [2] Given the forename Rolihlahla,[3] a Xhosa term colloquially meaning "troublemaker",[4] in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba. [66] Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his party cadre allies began advocating direct action against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics already employed by South Africa's Indian community. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned. [346][347] After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013,[348] his lung infection recurred and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria. "[385], Mandela advocated the ultimate establishment of a classless society,[386] with Sampson describing him as being "openly opposed to capitalism, private land-ownership and the power of big money". [48] In late 1941, Jongintaba visited Johannesburgâthere forgiving Mandela for running awayâbefore returning to Thembuland, where he died in the winter of 1942. Tom was a great breeder of border collies and sheep, a great teacher of herding, and a loyal friend. B. Peckels et J. Hureau, « Essai de définition de l'expertise et des experts », Experts, n°78, mars 2008, p. 79. [397] Despite these beliefs, Mandela initiated a programme of privatisation during his presidency in line with trends in other countries of the time. [30], With Jongintaba's backing, in 1939 Mandela began work on a BA degree at the University of Fort Hare, an elite black institution in Alice, Eastern Cape, with around 150 students. [352] In September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital,[353] although his condition remained unstable. [475] Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order of St. John and granted him membership in the Order of Merit. [199][200] Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa. [370] Mandela nevertheless also expressed admiration for what he deemed to be indigenous forms of democracy, describing Xhosa traditional society's mode of governance as "democracy in its purest form". I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. [228] Influenced by Thabo Mbeki, Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. [143] The trial gained international attention; there were global calls for the release of the accused from the United Nations and World Peace Council, while the University of London Union voted Mandela to its presidency. [317] Mandela found such seclusion difficult and reverted to a busy public life involving daily programme of tasks, meetings with world leaders and celebrities, andâwhen in Johannesburgâworking with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to focus on rural development, school construction, and combating HIV/AIDS. [320], He retained some involvement in international affairs. [378], Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout believer in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them. [24], Intending to gain skills needed to become a privy councillor for the Thembu royal house, in 1933 Mandela began his secondary education at Clarkebury Methodist High School in Engcobo, a Western-style institution that was the largest school for black Africans in Thembuland. [2002] (2002). [405][406], For political scientists Betty Glad and Robert Blanton, Mandela was an "exceptionally intelligent, shrewd, and loyal leader". This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of 65. [456] Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering racial reconciliation,[413] coming to be viewed as "a moral authority" with a great "concern for truth". [271] In adopting this approach, Mandela's government adhered to the "Washington consensus" advocated by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. [88] In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, Mandela and Tambo, operating in downtown Johannesburg. [172] He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Lesotho, the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in India in 1979, and the Freedom of the City of Glasgow, Scotland in 1981. [57], At Sisulu's house, Mandela met Evelyn Mase, a trainee nurse and ANC activist from Engcobo, Transkei. [395] Mandela's view of these Western governments differed from those of MarxistâLeninists, for he did not believe that they were anti-democratic or reactionary and remained committed to democratic systems of governance. [120][121], âStatement released by MK to announce the start of their sabotage campaign[122], Operating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. [455] His name was often invoked by those criticising his successors like Mbeki and Zuma. THE AWAKENING OF CHINA: 1793–1949. [343], In February 2011, Mandela was briefly hospitalised with a respiratory infection, attracting international attention,[344][345] before being re-admitted for a lung infection and gallstone removal in December 2012. [287] Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation. ..." – from "Three giants tighten their grip", harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCrespigny2004 (, 《至大金陵新志》："金城在城东二十五里，吴筑，今上元县金陵乡地名金城戍即其地。" 《至正金陵新志》："上元縣金陵鄉，舊名金城戍。晉太元八年，謝安勞師于金城，即此。或稱琅邪城。咸康初，桓溫為琅邪內史，鎮金城。", 金陵在春秋時本吳地，未有城邑。惟石頭城東有冶城。傳雲，夫差冶鑄於此。即今朝天宮地。. On October 31, 2019, the official Weibo of the UNESCO Creative City Network announced that Nanjing was listed as the World Literary Capital; City of Literature. Influenced by Marxism, he secretly joined the banned South African Communist Party (SACP). He was arrested and imprisoned in 1962, and subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the state following the Rivonia Trial. [123] Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on Dingane's Day (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve. [5] His patrilineal great-grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was king of the Thembu people in the Transkeian Territories of South Africa's modern Eastern Cape province. [62], In July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate Peter Mda, who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary. [310] During a 1997 visit to London, he said that "the ruler of South Africa, the de facto ruler, is Thabo Mbeki" and that he was "shifting everything to him". [339] Despite maintaining a low profile during the event due to ill-health, Mandela made his final public appearance during the World Cup closing ceremony, where he received much applause. [383], According to Lodge, Mandela's political thought reflected tensions between his support for liberal democracy and pre-colonial African forms of consensus decision making. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking one. [61] In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust. New York: Putnam, 1967. p. 109, Fu Jing-hui, An Introduction of Chinese and Foreign History of War, 2003, p.109–111, Document sent by former Japanese foreign minister. [305] The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the Nationalists, with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he had been encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 World Economic Forum in Switzerland. In January 1958, Oswald Pirow was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was "sufficient reason" for the defendants to go on trial in the Transvaal Supreme Court. [420] In later life, he always looked for the best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others. Names: Nichols, Tom, 1960- author. Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 and led a sabotage campaign against the government. "[51], Mandela began studying law at the University of the Witwatersrand, where he was the only black African student and faced racism. [324] Mandela publicised AIDS as the cause of his son Makgatho's death in January 2005, to defy the stigma about discussing the disease. [25] Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed that he lost his "stuck up" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening. [146] Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring 8 feet (2.4 m) by 7 feet (2.1 m), with a straw mat on which to sleep. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending several weeks in prison. [315] Although opinion polls in South Africa showed wavering support for both the ANC and the government, Mandela himself remained highly popular, with 80% of South Africans polled in 1999 expressing satisfaction with his performance as president.
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